Some Jews escaped ghettos and joined partisan movements fighting against the Nazis from forest enclaves. Within the ghettos and the killing camps, acts of defiance, small or large, were suppressed and the brave dissidents savagely punished. When the Allies began to close in on Germany in late and early , the Nazis forced the surviving prisoners on long marches to camps believed to be out of the way of the advancing enemy armies.
Hundreds of thousands died of exposure, violence, and starvation on these death marches. As the Allied armies moved into Germany and Poland, they liberated the concentration and extermination camps, and witnesses to these scenes—war reporters and military personnel—were horrified by what they found.
The world already knew the Germans were gassing, or working to death, Jews and other ethnic victims in these camps. Escaped prisoners had reported conditions to the media and to government officials in the United Kingdom and the United States. As an adult, Janine Simone Hopkins was encouraged by her family to record her experiences and reflections of her life in Paris during the German occupation.
Attached to Canadian and British forces, the first Americans to see ground combat in Europe witnessed disaster at Dieppe. This article examines how World War II marked an important moment in the political history of modern zoos. When the war in Europe ended in the spring of , Romani survivors were scattered, exhausted, and traumatized. Although less well trained than their German counterparts, the Soviet Army was extremely large and they were more used to the difficult terrain than German troops.
Having expected a quick victory, the German troops became more and more exhausted and they were unprepared for a Russian winter after months of warfare. Supply chains were slow, leaving troops short of key materials. In late , the Soviets launched a counterattack on the German troops outside Moscow, pushing the Germans back into a defensive battle. The mass murder of Soviet Jews by the Einsatzgruppen was an essential part of the planning that took place in the six months prior to the invasion of the Soviet Union.
Their victims included, but were not limited to, Slavs, Jews, Roma and their political opponents. The Einsatzgruppen were made up approximately men. They were assisted by the Germany Army and local collaborators. In contrast to the extermination camp system which was used widely for Jews in Germany, Austria and occupied Poland, the Einsatzgruppen murdered their victims where they lived or nearby to where they lived.
Typically, the Einsatzgruppen murdered their victims in mass shootings, however there were also cases of the Einsatzgruppen using mobile gas vans. Einsatzgruppe A covered Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Einsatzgruppe B covered eastern Poland from Warsaw east and Belorussia. Einsatzgruppe C covered southeastern Poland from Krakow east and western Ukraine. Einsatzgruppe D covered Romania, southern Ukraine and the Crimea. The following day, the United States declared war on Japan.
Until the end of , the United States of America had remained a neutral country, not involved in the War. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, the most important naval base in America, on 7 December changed this.
The USA were caught by surprise by the attack. Over people were killed, and more than people were injured. A large majority of the military vehicles present were destroyed or broken.
The reaction to the sheer devastation caused was immediate. Hitler supported the Japanese attack, and shortly after, on 11 December , declared war on the USA. The USA immediately retaliated, and returned the declaration.
The bombing of Pearl Harbour, which brought the United States into the war on the side of the Allies, had a huge impact on the final outcome of the war.
Stalingrad was one of the largest and most brutal battles of the Second World War. Here, German troops run through a trench in the north of Stalingrad during battle. This pamphlet was published in July It circulated the details of a meeting of German resistance in , shortly after the end of the Battle of Stalingrad.
The pamphlet helps to evidence the small but growing discontent from some groups against the Nazis in Germany by this stage in the war. However, this discontent and resistance was typically from small, uncoordinated, groups rather than a united national movement.
Following the invasion of the Soviet Union in , fighting on the eastern front was continuous. The Germans, who had been close to capturing the capital of Moscow in late , were pushed back over miles to west to the town of Rzhev.
This attack was problematic for German morale but, by February , German troops had reorganised. They counterattacked and destroyed several Soviet divisions. This counterattack was soon met with further counterattacks from the Soviets and then the Germans. On the 23 August , the Germans launched an offensive to seize the city of Stalingrad in south-west Russia.
The battle was one of the largest and most brutal in history. It was also one of the only battles of the Second World War to feature hand-to-hand combat. The Germans first attempted to bomb Stalingrad into submission. The city was reduced to rubble with air attacks by the Luftwaffe.
German tanks followed the planes, reaching the outskirts of the city quickly. The German troops entered Stalingrad on the 12 September , advanced quickly and occupied two thirds of the city by the 30 September. Their rapid advance once again fooled them into thinking that the battle would be quick. The Soviets put up a strong resistance. Having experienced losses against the Germans almost continuously for the previous year, the Soviet Army saw Stalingrad as an ideological and moral battle as well as a tactical one.
In addition to continuous air bombing, fighting in the rubble of the city was characterised by hand-to-hand combat with daggers and bayonets, as each side ambushed the other under the cover of darkness. By November , Marshal Georgy Zhukov , the Soviet general, had gathered over a million men with several tank armies.
Zhukov encircled Axis troops in the north-west of the city. On 19 November , the Russians overwhelmed Romanian armies who were supporting the Germans in the north west of the city. The Germans reacted slowly, and quickly became encircled. Despite General Paulus repeatedly requesting permission to surrender or retreat from Hitler, this was denied. The , German soldiers that were surrounded by the Soviet Army quickly ran out of ammunition and food in the midst of the Russian winter.
Of the 91, German troops that surrendered, just eventually returned to Germany. Most died from illness, starvation or exhaustion. It was a series of four offensives carried out by Allied troops in central Italy who was a key ally of Germany in an attempt to breakthrough the Winter Line and occupy Rome.
Monte Cassino was the mountain above the town of Cassino where the Germans had installed several defences in preparation for the Allied invasion. An Abbey sat on top of the mountain. One of the primary routes to Rome ran through the town of Cassino at the bottom of the mountain.
Other routes to Rome had become impassable due to flooding and the difficult terrain made worse by the winter weather. However, due to the German defences above, passing along the Monte Cassino route was impossible without first defeating the German troops on the mountain. Allied troops landed in southern Italy in September , but only had limited progress due to the harsh winter and Axis defences.
The first attack at Monte Cassino started on 17 January as British Empire, American and French troops fought uphill against the strategic German defences. The German defences were extremely well integrated into the mountainside, and, following large losses, the Allies pulled back on 11 February.
The Allies suspected that the Germans were using the Abbey which was situated at the top of a large hill and protected as neutral territory under the Concordat of as a military observation point. In response, the Allies bombed the Abbey, starting the second offensive of the battle, on 15 February Following the bombing, German troops used the ruins of the Abbey as a fortress and observation post.
The third attack was launched from the north on 15 March. After a large bombing campaign, Allied troops advanced through the town of Cassino. The defences were tough and both sides experienced heavy losses.
The German parachute divisions held on to the Abbey. The Allies fell back, and planned Operation Diadem — the fourth and final battle. The battle involved attacks on four fronts, and took two months to get all the troops in place. The United States and Great Britain proposed resettlement havens in under-developed areas e. Guyana, formerly British Guiana, and the Philippines , but these were not suitable alternatives.
Two important factors should be noted. At that time, there were no operative plans to kill the Jews. The goal was to induce them to leave, if necessary, by the use of force. It is also important to recognize the attitude of German Jewry. While many German Jews were initially reluctant to emigrate, the majority sought to do so following Kristallnacht The Night of Broken Glass , November , Had havens been available, more people would certainly have emigrated.
He considered this area the natural territory of the German people, an area to which they were entitled by right, the Lebensraum living space that Germany needed so badly for its farmers to have enough soil. Hitler maintained that these areas were needed for the Aryan race to preserve itself and assure its dominance.
There is no question that Hitler knew that, by launching the war in the East, the Nazis would be forced to deal with serious racial problems in view of the composition of the population in the Eastern areas. Thus, the Nazis had detailed plans for the subjugation of the Slavs, who would be reduced to serfdom status and whose primary function would be to serve as a source of cheap labor for Aryan farmers. Those elements of the local population, who were of higher racial stock, would be taken to Germany where they would be raised as Aryans.
In Hitler's mind, the solution of the Jewish problem was also linked to the conquest of the eastern territories. These areas had large Jewish populations and they would have to be dealt with accordingly.
While at this point there was still no operative plan for mass annihilation, it was clear to Hitler that some sort of comprehensive solution would have to be found.
There was also talk of establishing a Jewish reservation either in Madagascar or near Lublin, Poland. When he made the decisive decision to invade the Soviet Union, Hitler also gave instructions to embark upon the "Final Solution," the systematic murder of European Jewry.
Was there any opposition to the Nazis within Germany? Throughout the course of the Third Reich, there were different groups who opposed the Nazi regime and certain Nazi policies. They engaged in resistance at different times and with various methods, aims, and scope. From the beginning, leftist political groups and a number of disappointed conservatives were in opposition; at a later date, church groups, government officials, students and businessmen also joined.
After the tide of the war was reversed, elements within the military played an active role in opposing Hitler. At no point, however, was there a unified resistance movement within Germany. Despite the difficult conditions to which Jews were subjected in Nazi-occupied Europe, many engaged in armed resistance against the Nazis. This resistance can be divided into three basic types of armed activities: ghetto revolts, resistance in concentration and death camps, and partisan warfare.
The Warsaw Ghetto revolt, which lasted for about five weeks beginning on April 19, , is probably the best-known example of armed Jewish resistance, but there were many ghetto revolts in which Jews fought against the Nazis. Jewish partisan units were active in many areas, including Baranovichi, Minsk, Naliboki forest, and Vilna.
While the sum total of armed resistance efforts by Jews was not militarily overwhelming and did not play a significant role in the defeat of Nazi Germany, these acts of resistance did lead to the rescue of an undetermined number of Jews, Nazi casualties, and untold damage to German property and self-esteem.
What was the Judenrat? The Judenrat was the council of Jews, appointed by the Nazis in each Jewish community or ghetto. According to the directive from Reinhard Heydrich of the SS on September 21, , a Judenrat was to be established in every concentration of Jews in the occupied areas of Poland. They were led by noted community leaders.
Enforcement of Nazi decrees affecting Jews and administration of the affairs of the Jewish community were the responsibilities of the Judenrat. These functions placed the Judenrat in a highly responsible, but controversial position, and many of their actions continue to be the subject of debate among historians.
While the intentions of the heads of councils were rarely challenged, their tactics and methods have been questioned. Among the most controversial were Mordechai Rumkowski in Lodz and Jacob Gens in Vilna, both of whom justified the sacrifice of some Jews in order to save others. Leaders and members of the Judenrat were guided, for the most part, by a sense of communal responsibility, but lacked the power and the means to successfully thwart Nazi plans for annihilation of all Jews.
Its activities can basically be divided into three periods: 1. September, - June 22, The IRC confined its activities to sending food packages to those in distress in Nazi-occupied Europe. Packages were distributed in accordance with the directives of the German Red Cross. Throughout this time, the IRC complied with the German contention that those in ghettos and camps constituted a threat to the security of the Reich and, therefore, were not allowed to receive aid from the IRC.
June 22, - Summer Despite numerous requests by Jewish organizations, the IRC refused to publicly protest the mass annihilation of Jews and non-Jews in the camps, or to intervene on their behalf. It maintained that any public action on behalf of those under Nazi rule would ultimately prove detrimental to their welfare. At the same time, the IRC attempted to send food parcels to those individuals whose addresses it possessed.
The IRC did insist that it be allowed to visit concentration camps, and a delegation did visit the "model ghetto" of Terezin Theresienstadt. The IRC request came following the receipt of information about the harsh living conditions in the camp.
The IRC requested permission to investigate the situation, but the Germans only agreed to allow the visit nine months after submission of the request. This delay provided time for the Nazis to complete a "beautification" program, designed to fool the delegation into thinking that conditions at Terezin were quite good and that inmates were allowed to live out their lives in relative tranquility. The visit, which took place on July 23, , was followed by a favorable report on Terezin to the members of the IRC which Jewish organizations protested vigorously, demanding that another delegation visit the camp.
Such a visit was not permitted until shortly before the end of the war. In reality, the majority were subsequently deported to Auschwitz where they were murdered.
Moreover, in their occupied areas of France, Greece, and Yugoslavia, the Italians protected the Jews and did not allow them to be deported. However, when the Germans overthrew the Badoglio government in , the Jews of Italy, as well as those under Italian protection in occupied areas, were subject to the "Final Solution. Despite pressure by their German allies urging them to take stringent measures against Jews, the Japanese refused to do so. Refugees were allowed to enter Japan until the spring of , and Jews in Japanese-occupied China were treated well.
In the summer and fall of , refugees in Japan were transferred to Shanghai but no measures were taken against them until early , when they were forced to move into the Hongkew Ghetto. While conditions were hardly satisfactory, they were far superior to those in the ghettos under German control. Although he stated that the myths of "race" and "blood" were contrary to Christian teaching in a papal encyclical, March , he neither mentioned nor criticized antisemitism. Although as early as the Vatican received detailed information on the murder of Jews in concentration camps, the Pope confined his public statements to expressions of sympathy for the victims of injustice and to calls for a more humane conduct of the war.
Despite the lack of response by Pope Pius XII, several papal nuncios played an important role in rescue efforts, particularly the nuncios in Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, and Turkey.
It is not clear to what, if any, extent they operated upon instructions from the Vatican. In Germany, the Catholic Church did not oppose the Nazis' antisemitic campaign. Church records were supplied to state authorities which assisted in the detection of people of Jewish origin, and efforts to aid the persecuted were confined to Catholic non-Aryans.
While Catholic clergymen protested the Nazi euthanasia program, few, with the exception of Bernhard Lichtenberg, spoke out against the murder of the Jews. In Western Europe, Catholic clergy spoke out publicly against the persecution of the Jews and actively helped in the rescue of Jews.
In Eastern Europe, however, the Catholic clergy was generally more reluctant to help. Jozef Tiso, the head of state of Slovakia and a Catholic priest, actively cooperated with the Germans as did many other Catholic priests. The response of Protestant and Eastern Orthodox churches varied. In Germany, for example, Nazi supporters within Protestant churches complied with the anti-Jewish legislation and even excluded Christians of Jewish origin from membership. Pastor Martin Niem"ller's Confessing Church defended the rights of Christians of Jewish origin within the church, but did not publicly protest their persecution, nor did it condemn the measures taken against the Jews, with the exception of a memorandum sent to Hitler in May In occupied Europe, the position of the Protestant churches varied.
In other countries Bulgaria, Greece, and Yugoslavia , some Orthodox church leaders intervened on behalf of the Jews and took steps which, in certain cases, led to the rescue of many Jews. How many Nazi criminals were there? Why relate the Holocaust to other genocides and crimes against humanity? While studying the history of the Holocaust is a central task in many classrooms, both teachers and students often feel that similar genocidal events also need to be addressed in the lessons.
However, knowledge on other genocides is often limited. In some cases, only little research and witness accounts are available or accessible for teachers and, furthermore, information is often politicized. The question then rises if comparing the Holocaust to other genocides provides worthwhile learning opportunities for our students.
This section summarises a number of important reasons why it can be valuable to offer such a comparative approach, points out some challenges, and concludes with some reasons or agendas that should not lie behind a comparative approach. Why relate or compare the Holocaust to other genocides, crimes against humanity and mass atrocities?
The Holocaust is often considered to have given rise to our conceptualisation of the term "genocide", which was coined during the Second World War, in large measure as a response to the crimes of the Nazis and their collaborators. So the Holocaust may constitute a starting point and the foundation for studying genocide. In comparing the Holocaust to other genocides and crimes against humanity it should be possible to sharpen understandings not only of similarities between events but also of key differences.
In so doing, it may be an opportunity to better understand the particular historical significance of the Holocaust, and how study of the Holocaust might contribute to our understanding of other genocidal events. By the same token, learning about other genocides may contribute to deeper understandings about the Holocaust. In comparing the Holocaust to other genocides and crimes against humanity it may be possible to identify common patterns and processes in the development of genocidal situations.
Through the understanding of a genocidal process and in identifying stages and warning signs in this process, a contribution can hopefully be made to prevent future genocides. Students should appreciate the significance of the Holocaust in the development of international law, tribunals and attempts by the international community to respond to genocide in the modern world. To compare the Holocaust to other genocides may be a means to alert young people to the potential danger for other genocides and crimes against humanity to evolve today.
This may strengthen an awareness of their own roles and responsibilities in the global community. To compare the Holocaust to other genocides may help to overcome the lack of recognition of other genocides.
Knowledge of the Holocaust may also be helpful in considering how to come to terms with the past in other societies after genocide, how communities can respond to genocide, and how survivors can attempt to live with their experiences. The national history of a given country can be the reason for relating the Holocaust to another genocide: for example, because a genocide plays an important role in the national memory. It is also important to note that there are many challenges in such a comparative approach.
Care should be taken to avoid a number of pitfalls: 1. The comparing of two distinct historical events will be difficult without careful historical contextualisation, and so requires good understanding of both historical events. The differences between historical events are as important and significant as their similarities and care must be taken not to equate, diminish, or trivialise either the Holocaust or the genocides to which the Holocaust is compared.
It is important to be alert to the difference between comparing genocides, which is possible and legitimate, and comparing the suffering of individual victims or victim groups, which is not. Care must be taken not to create hierarchies of suffering or allow the value of a comparative study to be diminished by political or social agendas or competing memories. It is important to be aware of the rationale behind comparing the Holocaust to other genocides.
This being said, there are certain reasons or strategies for comparing the Holocaust to other genocides that are not fruitful and that definitely should be avoided. Some of these are: 1.
The link to other genocides is made to hide certain aspects of one's national history, such as collaboration with Nazi Germany during the Holocaust. The Holocaust is seen as a means of political power in contemporary politics and the link to the Holocaust is made out of political considerations.
The link to other genocides is made to diminish or trivialise the Holocaust. Key terms: Relating the terms "Holocaust", "genocide", "crimes against humanity" and "war crimes". Although these terms are often mentioned in the same context and, indeed, can be related, they each have very distinct and specific meanings.
Three of these terms — crimes against humanity, genocide, and war crimes — refer to legal categories as well as to concepts in the scholarly field. It is important to note that the legal categories are very strictly defined. For greater clarity of thinking and understanding, it is important that educators help their students to understand the different meanings of each of these terms. Crimes against humanity are widespread or systematic attacks on the civilian population, irrespective of whether the people are nationals or non-nationals and irrespective of whether the attacks are committed in time of war or in time of peace.
The attacks can for instance constitute murder, extermination, forced displacement, slavery, rape, torture and other inhumane acts. Crimes against humanity are essentially about the violation of common human rights and values.
It is also the umbrella category under which "war crimes" and "genocide" both fall in international law. War crimes are criminal acts committed during armed conflicts and the term refers to grave breaches of the rules of warfare. These rules are set down in a number of international agreements, first and foremost the Geneva Conventions.
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